tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-49044414967526118802024-02-20T17:06:42.637-08:00Chinese DictionaryAll about Chinese Dictionary, Chinese Dictionary basic information.fraejouvhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12344645430188019786noreply@blogger.comBlogger28125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4904441496752611880.post-54943768278720719602008-09-20T01:22:00.003-07:002008-09-20T01:22:59.819-07:00AdsotransAdso is an open source to dictionary and engine for Chinese text. The Adso project started in 2001. Its gist translation and dictionary interface are online at the Adsotrans website Adsotrans. Its software and database are freely available for download at the site as well.<br />
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<a name='Content' id='Content'></a><h2>Content</h2><br />
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With over 185,000 entries, Adso is the largest open source Chinese-English dictionary compilation on the Internet. It differs from other projects in providing part of speech and ontological data on word entries, and in reviewing user contributions. Project data is generated collaboratively by users and drawn from related projects including CEDICT and the Linguistic Data Consortium.<br />
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The Adso software engine provides text segmentation, hanzi-to-pinyin, gist translation, annotation, gist extraction and semantic analysis services. It is heavily used as a translation aid for Chinese-English translation. Adso also supports a specially-defined XML language which customizes software output. This has made it useful as preprocessor for statistical machine translation software such as GIZA++ or for reverse-index search engines such as Lucene.fraejouvhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12344645430188019786noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4904441496752611880.post-75482401789424803432008-09-20T01:22:00.001-07:002008-09-20T01:22:49.664-07:00ZihuiThe <strong>Zihui</strong> was a 1615 Chinese dictionary, edited by Mei Yingzuo during the late Ming Dynasty. It was the first dictionary to introduce the modern radical-stroke system. The ''Zihui'' has 14 fascicles with 33,179 character entries. While the ancillary first and last fascicles explain topics like stroke order and , the main ones are named after the twelve Earthly Branches. The Qing Dynasty scholar Wu Renchen published the 1666 ''Zihui bu'' .<br />
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The ''Zihui'' is renowned for establishing the system of 214 radicals, which dictionaries today still use as the basis for the collation of Chinese characters. It also introduced the "radical-and-stroke sorting" principle of arranging characters under a radical according to the number of residual strokes. Since the famous 1716 Kangxi dictionary adopted these 214 graphic elements, they are commonly called the List of Kangxi radicals rather than "List of Zihui radicals".<br />
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In order to make this lexicographical advance into the logically arranged 214 radicals, Mei Yingzuo simplified and rationalized the original system of 540 radicals in the Shuowen Jiezi. Some ''Shuowen Jiezi'' radicals contain few characters, which is an inefficient arrangement. For instance, its "man radical" 男, which compounds the "field radical" 田 and the "power radical" 力, only lists three: ''nan'' 男 , ''sheng'' 甥 , and ''jiu'' 舅 . The ''Zihui'' more efficiently lists ''nan'' 男 under the "power radical", ''sheng'' 甥 under the "life radical" 生, and ''jiu'' 舅 under the "mortar radical" 臼. <br />
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In modern Chinese usage, ''zihui'' means "glossary, wordbook, lexicon; ".fraejouvhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12344645430188019786noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4904441496752611880.post-54296537227274394182008-09-20T01:21:00.006-07:002008-09-20T01:22:42.913-07:00Zhongyuan Yinyun<strong>Zhongyuan Yinyun</strong> , literally meaning "The phonology of the Central Plains", is a rime book from the Yuan Dynasty compiled by Zhou Deqing in 1324. An important work for the study of historical Chinese phonology, it testifies many phonolgical changes from Middle Chinese to , such as the reduction and disappearance of final stop consonants and the reorganization of the . Though often termed a "rime dictionary", the work does not provide meanings for its entries.<br />
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<a name='Background' id='Background'></a><h2>Background</h2><br />
''Zhongyuan Yinyun'' continued the tradition of ''Qieyun'' and other rime books. However, due to the phonological changes took place from the Sui Dynasty to the Yuan Dynasty, the information needed to be updated in accordance with the then phonological system.<br />
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From the middle of the 13th Century to the end of the 14th Century, Beiqu underwent quick development. The author of Sanqu , Zhou Deqing, delved into the research on Beiqu, discovering that it created many problems by not adhering to the rules of classical poetic composition. He thought that in order to better develop Beiqu , one would need to make a definite standard, especially in respect to language. According to his own experience, he was able to propose a set of rules for composing and reciting Běiqǔ, which came to be known as ''Zhongyuan Yinyun''.<br />
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<a name='Structure' id='Structure'></a><h2>Structure</h2><br />
In the earlier rime books, characters are first grouped by tone, then by rime. However, in ''Zhongyuan Yinyun'', the selected 5,866 characters , commonly rhymed in songs of the time, are first grouped into 19 rime groups, then further into four tonal groups: , , , . The traditional is assigned to the aforementioned four groups according to contemporary rules. This novel way of dividing the traditional four tones is known as "dividing the level tones into ''yin'' and ''yang'', assigning the entering tone to the other three tones" . <br />
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Within each rime-tonal group, homophonic characters are further grouped together, with each homophonic group separated by an empty circle. As a common character, whose pronunciation every literate person is supposed to know, is used to head each homophonic group, ''fanqie'' spelling is not employed, as in the earlier rime books, for indicating the pronunciations of the characters. <br />
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Zhou regarded the principal works of the Four Great Yuan Playwrights as foundational to verse in general; he considered their works to be "rimes joined with nature, words able to connect with the language of the world" , and at the same time also distinguished where the playwrights used rimes in non-standard places.<br />
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''Zhongyuan Yinyun'''s second half, Zhengyu Zuoci Qili , employs various examples to explain in detail both the rime charts' methods of use as well as issues concerning Beiqu's creation, standards and other aspects.<br />
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<a name='List of rimes' id='List of rimes'></a><h2>List of rimes</h2><br />
*歌戈韻 Ge-Ge<br />
*家麻韻 Jia-Ma<br />
*車遮韻 Che-Zhe<br />
*齊微韻 Qi-Wei<br />
*支思韻 Zhi-Si<br />
*魚模韻 Yu-Mo<br />
*皆來韻 Jie-Lai<br />
*蕭豪韻 Xiao-Hao<br />
*尤侯韻 You-Hou<br />
*寒山韻 Han-Shan<br />
*先天韻 Xian-Tian<br />
*桓歡韻 Huan-Huan<br />
*監鹹韻 Jian-Xian<br />
*廉籤韻 Lian-Qian<br />
*真文韻 Zhen-Wen<br />
*侵尋韻 Qin-Xun<br />
*庚清韻 Geng-Qing<br />
*江陽韻 Jiang-Yang<br />
*東鍾韻 Dong-Zhong<br />
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<a name='Influence' id='Influence'></a><h2>Influence</h2><br />
In respect to contemporaneous and later Beiqu works, ''Zhongyuan Yinyun'' has played a very strong guiding role; moreover, many later rhyme works have regarded it as a model on which they based their interpretations. Up until the flourishing of Nanqu , ''Zhongyuan Yinyun'' still held a tremendous influence.fraejouvhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12344645430188019786noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4904441496752611880.post-49290764693815545662008-09-20T01:21:00.005-07:002008-09-20T01:21:36.450-07:00Zhongwen Da CidianThe <strong>Zhongwen Da Cidian</strong> is an unabridged Chinese dictionary, edited by Zhang Qiyun and others. The first edition had 40 volumes, which were published from 1962 through 1968.<br />
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This encyclopedic dictionary includes 49,905 Chinese characters arranged under the traditional 214 Kangxi radicals. Each character entry shows the evolution of graphic forms , gives pronunciations, and chronological meanings with sources. Words, phrases, and four-character idioms are given under the head character entry, arranged according to the number of in their components. "There are many phrases under some characters," note Teng and Biggerstaff , for example, 3,417 under ''yi'' and 1,398 under ''huang'' . <br />
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Although the ''Zhongwen Da Cidian'' closely resembles the first edition 1960 Dai Kan-Wa jiten , it is not listed under works consulted. The ''Zhongwen Da Cidian'' was the best available reference work of Chinese until 1993, when the ''Hanyu Da Cidian'' was completed.fraejouvhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12344645430188019786noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4904441496752611880.post-41759994252452932602008-09-20T01:21:00.003-07:002008-09-20T01:21:26.843-07:00Zhonghua Da ZidianThe <strong>Zhonghua Da Zidian</strong> was an unabridged Chinese dictionary of published in 1915. The chief editors were Xu Yuan'gao , Lu Feikui , and Ouyang Pucun . It was based upon the 1716 ''Kangxi Zidian'', and is internally organized using the 214 Kangxi radicals. The ''Zhonghua Da Zidian'' contains more than 48,000 entries for individual characters, including many invented in the two centuries since the ''Kangxi Dictionary''. <br />
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Each character entry includes the fanqie spelling from the Jiyun, the modern pronunciation given with a common homophone, different meanings , classical quotations, and two-character compounds using the character. Although Teng and Biggerstaff acknowledge the ''Zhonghua Da Zidian'' "is very comprehensive and is very carefully compiled," they note three defects. The index, which is arranged by number of , can be inconvenient . The margins do not have characters to help locate entries under a radical. The two-character phrases may be listed under either component.fraejouvhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12344645430188019786noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4904441496752611880.post-70680327033601016012008-09-20T01:21:00.001-07:002008-09-20T01:21:19.314-07:00YupianThe <strong>Yupian</strong> is a circa 543 CE Chinese dictionary edited by Gu Yewang during the Liang Dynasty. It arranges 12,158 character entries under 542 , which differ somewhat from the original 540 in the ''Shuowen Jiezi''. Each character entry gives a fanqie pronunciation gloss and a definition, with occasional annotation.<br />
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Baxter describes the textual history:<br />
The original ''Yùpiān'' was a large and unwieldy work of thirty ''juàn'' , and during Táng and Sòng various abridgements and revisions of it were made, which often altered the original ''f?nqiè'' spellings; of the original version only fragments remain , and the currently-available version of the ''Yùpiān'' is not a reliable guide to Early Middle Chinese phonology. <br />
In 760, during the Tang Dynasty, Sun Jiang compiled a ''Yupian'' edition, which he noted had a total of 51,129 words, less than a third of the original 158,641. In 1013, Song Dynasty scholar Chen Pengnian published a revised ''Daguang yihui Yupian'' . The Japanese monk Kūkai brought an original version ''Yupian'' back from China in 806, and modified it into his circa 830 ''Tenrei Banshō Meigi'', which is the oldest extant Japanese dictionary.fraejouvhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12344645430188019786noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4904441496752611880.post-89862249906282775142008-09-20T01:19:00.008-07:002008-09-20T01:20:02.618-07:00YunjingThe <strong>Yunjing</strong> is the oldest existing rime table. Current versions of the ''Yunjing'' date back to the 1161 and 1203 editions published by Zhang Linzhi .<br />
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In theory, the ''Yunjing'' is a two-dimensional representation of the Middle Chinese phonological system. The preface lists 36 initial consonants ; see the link below. The Yunjing contains 43 charts , each of which tabulates combinations of a particular final rime with various initials , in up to four tones. A detailed description of this native Chinese phonological system can be found at the rime table article. For further information about the ''Yunjing'', see Coblin and Pulleyblank .fraejouvhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12344645430188019786noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4904441496752611880.post-88838063690104073632008-09-20T01:19:00.007-07:002008-09-20T01:19:50.409-07:00Xinhua ZidianThe <strong>Xinhua Zidian</strong> is the best-selling Chinese dictionary and the world's most popular reference work. This pocket-sized dictionary of Chinese characters, published by the Commercial Press, uses Simplified Chinese characters and pinyin romanization. The most recent ''Xinhua Zidian'' edition enters 3,500 and includes over 11,200 logograms, including Traditional Chinese characters and Variant Chinese characters. <br />
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Under the aegis of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, the People's Education Press published the original ''Xinhua Zidian'' in 1953. The linguist and lexicographer Wei Jiangong was chief editor. In 1957, the respected Commercial Press published the ''Xinhua Zidian'' , which was alphabetically collated in pinyin order. They have subsequently revised this dictionary ten times, with over 200 printing runs, and it is a longtime bestseller among students in China. In early 2004, the total number of published copies exceeded 400 million, unquestionably making the ''Xinhua Zidian'' the most popular dictionary in the world.<br />
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Besides their popular concise version ''Xinhua Zidian'', Commercial Press also publishes a large-print edition and a ''Xinhua Dictionary with English Translation'' . In addition, the Shanxi Education Press publishes a pinyin-edition ''Xinhua Zidian'' with both characters and orthographically precise transcriptions .fraejouvhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12344645430188019786noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4904441496752611880.post-33151640927011230152008-09-20T01:19:00.005-07:002008-09-20T01:19:41.902-07:00Thesaurus Linguae SericaeThe <strong>Thesaurus Linguae Sericae</strong> 新編漢文典 is an international collaborative project designed to explore the conceptual schemes of the Chinese language. The project was conceived by Christoph Harbsmeier, its chief editor, and receives input by a large number of academic contributors worldwide. The content of TLS is preserved and presented in the form of a relational database hosted by the Institute of Chinese Studies, University of Heidelberg.<br />
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According to the editors, TLS is designed throughout to make the classical Chinese evidence strictly comparable to that of other cultures, and to make possible meaningful analytic primary-evidence-based disagreement among non-sinologists on classical Chinese concepts and words. The editors hope that careful philosophical reflection on Chinese texts might serve to broaden the empirical basis for philosophical theories and generalisations on conceptual schemes. They intend to improve the clarity and bite of declarations of difference between conceptual schemes by enlarging the basis of literally translated and analysed texts from widely different intellectual cultures, and to make precise criteria of translation for classical Chinese, mainly through a detailed description in English of systematic recurrent semantic relations between Chinese words, especially distinctive semantic features.<br />
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Key features of TLS are:<br />
* Focusing on distinctive semantic nuances, it serves as a synonym dictionary of classical Chinese. <br />
* It systematically organises the Chinese vocabulary in taxonomic and mereonomic hierarchies, thus showing up whole conceptual schemes or cognitive systems; these are taken to circumscribe the changing topology of Chinese mental space.<br />
* It systematically registers a range of lexical relations like antonym, converse, epithet etc.; TLS thus aims to define conceptual space as a relational space.<br />
* It incorporates detailed syntactic analysis of syntactic usage; TLS thus enables users to make a systematic study of such basic phenomena as the natural history of abstract nouns in China.<br />
* It is a corpus-based dictionary which will record the history of rhetorical devices in texts and thus enables the study of such things as the natural history of irony in China.<br />
* All analytic categories and procedures of analysis in TLS are flexible in the sense that they are continuously being revised and improved in the light of new observation and analysis.fraejouvhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12344645430188019786noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4904441496752611880.post-85401470091664507342008-09-20T01:19:00.003-07:002008-09-20T01:19:33.915-07:00Rime tableA <strong>rime table</strong> or <strong>rhyme table</strong> is a syllable chart of the Chinese language, a significant advance on the ''fanqie'' analysis used in earlier rime dictionaries. As China's native model, it tabulates the syllables of Middle Chinese by their s, s, grades of rime, s and other properties.<br />
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Tradition holds that rime tables were invented by Buddhist monks, who were inspired by the Sanskrit syllable charts in the Siddham script they used to study the language. The Song Dynasty ''Yunjing'' and ''Qiyin lüe'' are the oldest extant rime tables. Based on numerous internal similarities, linguists conclude they shared a common prototype of phonological tables with accompanying texts, a tradition that may date back to the late Tang Dynasty. <br />
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<a name='Structure' id='Structure'></a><h2>Structure</h2><br />
A rime table book consists of a number of tabular charts, each devoted to either the "inner" or "outer" part of a particular rime group .<br />
The inner/outer subdivision is thought to be related to the vocalic heights contrasting close vowels and open vowels respectively.<br />
Each ''shè'' is characterized as either "open" and "closed" , which are interpreted to indicate the absence or presence of lip rounding .<br />
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Within a table, syllables are classified using other features:<br />
* The initial consonant . A syllable beginning with a vowel is considered to have a "zero initial." Initials are classified according to<br />
** place of articulation: , , , and , and gutturals . The values of the last category remain controversial.<br />
** phonation: voiceless , voiceless aspirated , voiced or or .<br />
* The , using the same four tone names as used in the ''Qieyun''. These tones differ from the four tones of Standard Mandarin, though related tone systems are retained by many southern languages. In particular, syllables ending in stops were classified as the entering tone of the corresponding syllables with nasal endings .<br />
* The least understood classification is the four ''děng'' , which Bernhard Karlgren translated as "divisions" while other linguists prefer "grades". The exact nature of the grades is still open to debate, but is believed to describe palatalization , features, vowel quality or some combination of these.<br />
To illustrate the significance of ''děng'', the science of classifying vowels is called ''děngyùn'' and traditional phonology is ''děngyùnxué'' .<br />
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For example, ''Yùnjìng'' comprises 43 charts covering 16 rime groups.<br />
The following is the first chart :<br />
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<center><br />
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</center><br />
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The five big characters on the right-hand side read ''Nèi zhuǎn dìyī kāi'' . In ''Yùnjìng'', each chart is called a ''zhuǎn'' . The characters indicate that the chart is the first one in the book, and that the syllables of this chart are "inner" and "open" . <br />
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Although the preface of ''Yunjing'' lists 36 onsets, the table contains only 23 columns, which means some columns represent more than one onset. This is possible because some onsets only combine with some particular grades of rime: say onset A only combines with grade 1 and 4, and onset B only with grade 2 and 3, then the same column can represent both onset A and B. This kind of space-saving representation can cause confusion, and results in so-called ''jiǎděng'' : for example, a syllable shown to be grade-4 on the table is in fact grade-3, and finds itself at the grade-4 position only because the slot has been occupied by another syllable. <br />
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The 16 rows are grouped by tone into four ''yùn'', or rimes . Each ''yùn'' has a row for each of the four grades. The symbol <big>○</big> indicates that there is no character with that particular syllable. <br />
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The pronunciation of a character as indicated by ''fanqie'' spelling can be known by looking at such a chart. However, due to sound change, the traditional ''fanqie'' spellings and the rime tables may become incongruous. In such cases some special rules, called ''menfa'' 門法, have been made to resolve the incongruities.fraejouvhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12344645430188019786noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4904441496752611880.post-34232851502517593112008-09-20T01:19:00.001-07:002008-09-20T01:19:14.241-07:00Rime dictionaryA <strong>rime dictionary</strong>, <strong>rhyme dictionary</strong>, or <strong>rime book</strong> is an ancient type of Chinese dictionary used for writing poetry or other genre requiring rhymes. It collates s by and , instead of . However, a Chinese dictionary collated by rime and tone is not necessarily a rime dictionary . Moreover, a rime dictionary should not be confused with a rime table, which charts syllables according to and rime grade as well as rime and tone. In this context, the spelling "rime" is often used instead of the more common "rhyme" in order to distinguish between "rime" in the sense of the rhyming portion of a syllable as opposed to the concept of poetic rhyme.<br />
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Historical records suggest that the earliest rime dictionary is one called ''Shenglei'' by Li Deng of the Three Kingdoms period. However, the book did not survive. The first extant rime dictionary is ''Qieyun'' from the Sui Dynasty. The later ''Guangyun'' and ''Jiyun'' are based on ''Qieyun''. These rime dictionaries reflect the phonology of Middle Chinese.<br />
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In a rime dictionary, characters are first divided into four groups according to their tone names. Traditionally the group of the "level tone" occupies two ''juan'' as it contains more characters. Within each of the four tonal groups, characters are further divided into differet sub-groups according to their rimes. These sub-groups are called ''yun'' or ''yunmu'' or less frequently ''yunbu'' . Characters within each ''yun'' have the same tone and similar rime. In the case of ''Guangyun'', the slight difference is due to the presence or absence of the . For example, characters within the 東 ''yun'' all have the "level tone", and either the rime or the rime . <br />
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A rime dictionary primarily serves the composition of s . Versifiers rhyme a poem according to the standard rime book , not the sounds of their own dialect or those of the "mandarin" spoken at their time. For many generations of Chinese versifiers, the standard work to consult is the so-called ''Pingshuiyun'' first compiled during the , a simplified version of ''Guangyun'' which reduced the 206 ''yun'' into 106, reflecting the contemporary pronunciations.<br />
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Unlike a rhyming dictionary in the West, a Chinese rime dictionary also provides meanings and other lexical information - anything that helps to make a poem. The pronunciation in a rime dictionary is marked by ''fanqie''.fraejouvhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12344645430188019786noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4904441496752611880.post-85476687851817650902008-09-20T01:18:00.007-07:002008-09-20T01:19:02.745-07:00Qiyin lueThe <strong>Qiyin lüe</strong> is a rime table that dates prior to 1161. This reference work survived to the present largely because the Song Dynasty historian Zheng Qiao included it in his 1161 encyclopedia ''Tongzhi'' . <br />
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The ''Qiyinlüe'' has a close affinity with the ''Yunjing''. Both have tables combining rows for a particular final rime, columns for various initials, and up to four tones . A detailed description of this native Chinese phonological system can be found at rime tables.<br />
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The Chinese linguist Luo Changpei wrote a definitive study of the ''Qiyinlüe''.fraejouvhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12344645430188019786noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4904441496752611880.post-31202716568845804222008-09-20T01:18:00.005-07:002008-09-20T01:18:46.657-07:00QieyunThe <strong>Qieyun</strong> is a rime dictionary, published in 601 CE during the Sui Dynasty. The title ''Qieyun'' literally means "cutting rimes" referring to the traditional Chinese ''fanqie'' system of spelling, and is thus translatable as "Spelling Rimes."<br />
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Lu Fayan was the chief editor. The ''Qieyun'' preface describes how the book originated from discussions with eight of his friends at his home in Chang'an, which was the capital. <br />
In the evening, after they had enjoyed their wine, their discussions always turned to phonology. Differences obtained between the pronunciations of the past and the present and different principles of selection were followed by the various authors. … And so we discussed the right and wrong of South and North, and the prevailing and the obsolete of past and present; wishing to present a more refined and precise standard, we discarded all that was ill-defined and lacked preciseness. … And so I grasped my brush, and aided by the light of a candle, I wrote down a draft summary, which eventually was perfected through wide consultation and penetrating research. None of the editors was originally from Chang'an and they were native speakers of differing dialects; five northern and three southern .<br />
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The ''Qieyun'' did not directly record Middle Chinese as a spoken language, but rather how Chinese characters should be pronounced. Since this rime dictionary's spellings are the primary source for reconstructing Middle Chinese, linguists have disagreed over what variety of Chinese it recorded. "Much ink has been spilled concerning the nature of the language underlying the ''Qieyun''," says Norman , who lists three points of view. Some scholars, like Bernhard Karlgren, "held to the view that the ''Qieyun'' represented the language of Chang'an"; some "others have supposed that it represented an amalgam of regional pronunciations," technically known as a koine. "At the present time most people in the field accept the views of the Chinese scholar Zhou Zumo" that ''Qieyun'' spellings were a north-south regional compromise between literary pronunciations from the Southern and Northern Dynasties.<br />
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When classical Chinese poetry flowered during the Tang Dynasty, the ''Qieyun'' became the authoritative source for literary pronunciations and it repeatedly underwent revisions and enlargements . It was annotated in 677 by Zhangsun Neyan , revised and published in 706 by Wang Renxu as the ''Kanmiu Buque Qieyun'' , collated and republished in 751 by Sun Mian as the ''Tangyun'' , and eventually incorporated into the still-extant ''Guangyun'' and ''Jiyun'' rime dictionaries from the Song Dynasty. Although most of these Tang dictionary redactions were believed lost, some fragments were discovered among the Dunhuang manuscripts and manuscripts discovered at Turfan; and in 1947 a nearly complete manuscript of the 706 edition was found in the Palace Museum.<br />
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Like subsequent rime dictionaries, the ''Qieyun'' was organized into the four tone name groups, divided into 193 final rimes , and subdivided into homophone groups . It contains 16,917 character entries.fraejouvhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12344645430188019786noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4904441496752611880.post-75315423358188491322008-09-20T01:18:00.003-07:002008-09-20T01:18:36.779-07:00Qi Lin Bayin<strong>Qī Lín Bāyīn</strong> , sometimes translated as <strong>Book of Eight Sounds</strong> or <strong>Book of Eight Tones</strong> in , is a rime book of approximately ten thousand based on the earlier form of the Fuzhou dialect. First compiled in the 17th century, it is the pioneering work of all written sources for , and is widely quoted in modern academic research in Chinese phonology.<br />
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''Qī Lín Bāyīn'' is in fact a combination of two dictionaries <strong>Qī</strong> and <strong>Lín</strong> . The compilation date of the former antecedes that of the latter.<br />
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<a name='Authorship' id='Authorship'></a><h2>Authorship</h2><br />
The two ''Qī'' and ''Lín'' appearing on the title stand for Qi Jiguang and Lin Bishan , which might mislead people into thinking that they were the authors of this book. Since the famous military general Qi Jiguang was a native of Shandong Province and no records show he had mastered Fuzhou dialect within the short period of his stay in Fuzhou, the likelihood of his being one of the authors have been ruled out without doubt. In recent years, the authenticity of Lin Bishan being the other author has also been put into dispute. So far, the true authorship of ''Qī Lín Bāyīn'' still remains unknown.<br />
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<a name='Tones, initials, and rimes' id='Tones, initials, and rimes'></a><h2>Tones, initials, and rimes</h2><br />
<h3>Tones</h3><br />
The categories of Fuzhou dialect has remained stable since the time of ''Qī Lín Bāyīn''. In the book title, ''Bāyīn'' denotes eight tones, whose names are: 上平, 上上, 上去, 上入, 下平, 下上, 下去, and 下入. But the sixth tone 下上 is actually identical with the second one 上上 and therefore exists in theory only. In other words, Fuzhou dialect has seven rather than eight tones.<br />
<br />
However, due to the lack of phonetic descriptions of the seven tones, the deduction of the tonal values of that time is considered beyond possibility.<br />
<br />
<h3>Initials</h3><br />
In ''Qī Lín Bāyīn'', the fifteen are organized into a five-character , as follows:<br />
:柳邊求氣低, <br />
:波他曾日時, <br />
:鶯蒙語出非, <br />
:打掌與君知.<br />
<br />
In spite of the perceptible confluence of and in modern Fuzhou dialect, the initial structure nowadays is by and large the same as it was in the time of ''Qī Lín Bāyīn''.<br />
<br />
<h3>Rimes</h3><br />
Likewise, a is built up in ''Qī Lín Bāyīn'' by all thirty-three in the then Fuzhou dialect , as follows:<br />
<br />
:春花香, <br />
:秋山開, <br />
:嘉賓歡歌須金杯. <br />
:孤燈光輝燒銀缸. <br />
:之東郊, <br />
:過西橋. <br />
:雞聲催初天, <br />
:奇梅歪遮溝. <br />
<br />
The past couple of centuries witnessed three major changes in Fuzhou dialect. The first is the phenomenon of , by which the 上去, 上入 and 下去 characters shift its rime to its open form under certain circumstances; the second is the merger of and , as well as and ; and the last is the confusion of the coda and .<br />
<br />
<a name='Role in early studies of Fuzhou dialect' id='Role in early studies of Fuzhou dialect'></a><h2>Role in early studies of Fuzhou dialect</h2><br />
For centuries, ''Qī Lín Bāyīn'' had been utilized by local people as an authoritative reference book of the Foochow pronunciation. Furthermore, it also greatly assisted the earliest Western missionaries in Fuzhou in learning and studying the native language.<br />
<br />
M. C. White, a Methodist from the United States, is the first missionary that attempted to ''Qī Lín Bāyīn'', as he specifically pointed out in his work: "... the system of initials and finals used in the 'Book of Eight Tones,' ... would form a complete alphabet for the Fuh Chau dialect. They have been so used by missionaries for writing colloquial phrases, in their private study of the language. Three of the gospels have been written out in this manner by Chinese teachers in the employment of missionaries." M.C. White made a careful analysis of all phonemes and romanized them by using the <strong>System of Sir William Jones</strong>. The scheme consists of fourteen consonants and nine vowels:<br />
<br />
#Consonants<br />
#:ch, ch', h, k, k', l, m, n, ng, p, p', s, t, t'<br />
#Vowels<br />
#:a, e, è, ?, i, o, ò, u, ü<br />
<br />
William Jones Phonetic Alphabet had varied over time, and became standardized as Foochow Romanized several decades later.fraejouvhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12344645430188019786noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4904441496752611880.post-70870593563423720922008-09-20T01:18:00.001-07:002008-09-20T01:18:11.483-07:00PiyaThe <strong>Piya</strong> was a Chinese dictionary compiled by Song Dynasty scholar Lu Dian . He wrote this ''Erya'' supplement along with his ''Erya Xinyi'' commentary. Although the ''Piya'' preface written by his son Lu Zai is dated 1125, the dictionary was written earlier; Liu estimates around the Yuanfeng era .<br />
<br />
Lu Dian arranged the ''Piya'' into 8 semantically-based chapters that closely correspond with the last 13-19. The only exceptions are Chapter 5 that is contained in ''Erya'' 19 and Chapter 8 that anomalously corresponds with the first part of the ''Erya''.<br />
<br />
<table class = "wikitable" ><br />
<tr><th> Chapter </th><th> </th><th> Pinyin </th><th> Translation </th><th> Erya Chapter </th></tr><br />
<tr><td> 1</td><td> 釋魚</td><td> Shiyu</td><td> <br />
Explaining Fishes</td><td>16</td></tr><br />
<tr><td> 2</td><td> 釋獸</td><td> Shishou</td><td> <br />
Explaining Beasts</td><td>18</td></tr><br />
<tr><td> 3</td><td> 釋鳥</td><td> Shiniao</td><td> <br />
Explaining Birds</td><td>17</td></tr><br />
<tr><td> 4</td><td> 釋蟲</td><td> Shichong</td><td> <br />
Explaining Insects</td><td> 15</td></tr><br />
<tr><td> 5 </td><td> 釋馬</td><td> Shima</td><td> <br />
Explaining Horses</td><td> </td></tr><br />
<tr><td> 6</td><td> 釋木</td><td> Shimu</td><td> <br />
Explaining Trees</td><td> 14</td></tr><br />
<tr><td> 7</td><td> 釋草</td><td> Shicao</td><td> <br />
Explaining Plants</td><td> 13</td></tr><br />
<tr><td> 8</td><td> 釋天</td><td> Shitian</td><td> <br />
Explaining Heaven</td><td>8</td></tr></table><br />
<br />
The preface explains Lu's motives for defining flora and fauna terminology. Since Song officials changed the basis for the Imperial examination from mastering poetry to ''jingyi'' , literati no longer studied the lyrical names for plants and animals.fraejouvhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12344645430188019786noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4904441496752611880.post-3737545645073325732008-09-20T01:17:00.006-07:002008-09-20T01:18:03.660-07:00Longkan Shoujian<strong>Longkan Shoujian</strong> is a Chinese dictionary compiled during the Liao Dynasty by the monk Xingjun . Completed in 997, the work had originally been entitled ''Longkan Shoujing'' , but had its title changed owing to naming taboo when it was later printed by the publishers. The earliest surviving edition of the work is an incomplete one, reprinted in China in 1985.<br />
<br />
''Longkan Shoujian'' was one the many ''yinyishu'' produced in ancient China, which were meant to aid the study of Buddhist scriptures. However, the work stands out in two aspects. Firstly, its method of collation is innovative. While Chinese dictionaries before ''Shoujian'' collate s either graphically or phonetically , the work employs both methods: the radicals, which number 242 , are grouped by tone into four groups ; the characters under each radical are in turn grouped by tone. Secondly, it collects more than 26,000 characters with a huge proportion of variant characters. Many of these variants are not recorded in any other works. <br />
<br />
The characters in it are divided, in terms of orthography, into "standard" , "vulgar" , "contemporary" , "archaic" and "alternative" , a classification more elaborated than that used in ''Ganlu Zishu''. The pronunciations of characters in it are indicated by either homophone or ''fanqie'' spelling. For some characters, only the pronunciations are given, not the meanings.<br />
<br />
While being criticized for its unorthodox collation and collection by the philologists, it is hailed by Pan as an essential guide for deciphering the Dunhuang manuscripts, which contains a large amount of "vulgar" characters.fraejouvhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12344645430188019786noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4904441496752611880.post-76916378149776107612008-09-20T01:17:00.005-07:002008-09-20T01:17:43.200-07:00List of Kangxi radicalsThe following is a <strong>list of all 214 Kangxi </strong>, used originally in the 1615 ''Zihui'' and adopted by the 1716 ''Kangxi dictionary'', in order of the number of s along with some examples of characters containing them. Please read Chinese characters and for more information on how these radicals are used in .<br />
<br />
Variant forms of a radical are provided together or listed in two lines if they look very different . Simplified forms are given after a slash. . The character examples are all traditional characters.<br />
<br />
This list is such a common standard that sometimes radicals are referred to by number alone. A reference to radical 189, for example, without additional context, means 高.<br />
<br />
For modern radicals, see List of 189 modern radicals, and List of 227 modern radicals .<br />
<br />
The Kangxi radicals are encoded in the Unicode U+2F00–2FDF range. Additional radicals are found in the CJK Radicals Supplement range .<br />
<br />
<br />
<a name='1 stroke' id='1 stroke'></a><h2>1 stroke</h2><br />
* . 一 - 丁 七 万 丈 三<br />
* . 丨 - 中 丰 串<br />
* . 丶 - 丸 丹 主 丼<br />
* . 丿 - 乂 乃 久 乍 乎<br />
* . 乙??? - 乞 乾 <br />
* . 亅 - 了 予<br />
<br />
<a name='2 strokes' id='2 strokes'></a><h2>2 strokes</h2><br />
* 7. 二 - 于 五 井 些 <br />
* 8. 亠 - 交 亥 京 亮<br />
* 9. 人 - 今 介 从 令 会<br />
* 9'. 亻 - 仁 仕 他 仙 休<br />
* 10. 儿 - 兄 兆 先 光 兒<br />
* 11. 入 - 兩 內<br />
* 12. 八 - 公 共 兵 具 典<br />
* 13. 冂? - 冉 冊 再 冎 冏<br />
* 14. 冖 - 冗 冠 冢 冤 冥<br />
* 15. 冫 - 冬 冰 冶 冷 凍<br />
* 16. 几? - 凡 凭 凰 凱 凳<br />
* 17. 凵 - 凶 凸 凹 出 函<br />
* 18. 刀? - 刃 分 切 初 券<br />
* 18'. 刂 - 刈 刊 刑 列 判<br />
* 19. 力 - 功 劣 助 努 励<br />
* 20. 勹 - 勺 勻 勾 包 匈<br />
* 21. 匕 - 北 匙<br />
* 22. 匚 - 匠 匡 匣 匪 匱<br />
* 23. �甞<br />
* 100. 生 - 甡 產 甥 甦 甧<br />
* 101. 用 - 甩 甫 甬 甭 甯<br />
* 102. 田 - 男 界 留 畦 番<br />
* 103. 疋? - 疌 疎 疏 疐 疑<br />
* 104. 疒 - 疼 疾 病 痛 痴<br />
* 105. 癶 - 癷 癸 癹 登 發<br />
* 106. 白 - 的 皆 皇 皎 皓<br />
* 107. 皮 - 皰 皴 皸 皺 皻<br />
* 108. 皿 - 盂 盆 盒 盛 盟<br />
* 109. 目? - 盲 看 眺 眼 睛<br />
* 110. 矛 - 矜 矝 矞 矠 矡<br />
* 111. 矢 - 矣 知 矩 短 矮<br />
* 112. 石 - 砂 砥 砲 硬 磁<br />
* 113. 示? - 祟 票 祭 禁 禦<br />
* 113'. 礻 - 礼 社 祈 祝 神<br />
* 114. 禸 - 禹 禺 离 禼 禽<br />
* 115. 禾 - 秋 税 稔 稻 稼<br />
* 116. 穴 - 究 空 穿 突 窃<br />
* 117. 立 - 站 竝 章 竣 童<br />
<br />
<a name='6 strokes' id='6 strokes'></a><h2>6 strokes</h2><br />
* 118. 竹? - 竿 笏 箒 算 箱<br />
* 119. 米 - 粒 粗 粟 精 糊<br />
* 120. 糸 - 系 紊 素 索 紫<br />
* 120'. 糹/纟 - 紅 �br />
* 198. 鹿 - 麋 麒 麓 麗 麟<br />
* 199. 麥/麦 - 麩 麪 麭 麰 麴<br />
* 200. 麻 - 麼 麾 黀 黁 黂<br />
<br />
<a name='12 strokes' id='12 strokes'></a><h2>12 strokes</h2><br />
* 201. 黃/? - 黆 黇 黉 黋 黌<br />
* 202. 黍 - 黎 黏 黐<br />
* 203. 黑 - 墨 黔 默 黛 黠<br />
* 204. 黹 - 黺 黻 黼<br />
<br />
<a name='13 strokes' id='13 strokes'></a><h2>13 strokes</h2><br />
* 205. 黽/黾 - 鼀 鼆 鼇 鼈 鼉<br />
* 206. 鼎 - 鼏 鼐 鼑 鼒<br />
* 207. 鼓 - 鼕 鼖 鼗 鼘 鼙<br />
* 208. 鼠 - 鼦 鼨 鼬 鼯 鼹<br />
<br />
<a name='14 strokes' id='14 strokes'></a><h2>14 strokes</h2><br />
* 209. 鼻 - 鼾 鼿 齁 齅 齉<br />
* 210. 齊/齐/斉 - 齋 齌 齍 齎 齏<br />
<br />
<a name='15 strokes' id='15 strokes'></a><h2>15 strokes</h2><br />
* . 齒/齿/歯 - 齟 齡 齧 齬 齲<br />
<br />
<a name='16 strokes' id='16 strokes'></a><h2>16 strokes</h2><br />
* . 龍/龙/竜 - 龏 龐 龑 龔 龕<br />
* . 龜?/龟/亀 - 龞 ? ? ? ?<br />
<br />
<a name='17 strokes' id='17 strokes'></a><h2>17 strokes</h2><br />
* . 龠 - 龡 龢 龣 龤 龥fraejouvhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12344645430188019786noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4904441496752611880.post-80963354032390608532008-09-20T01:17:00.003-07:002008-09-20T01:17:22.724-07:00Kangxi DictionaryThe <strong>Kangxi Dictionary</strong> was the standard Chinese dictionary during the 18th and 19th centuries. The Kangxi Emperor of the Manchu Qing Dynasty ordered its compilation in 1710 and it was published in 1716. The dictionary is named after the Emperor's era name.<br />
<br />
<a name='Compilation' id='Compilation'></a><h2>Compilation</h2><br />
The ''Kangxi Dictionary'' editors, including Zhang Yushu and Chen Tingjing , partly based it on two Ming Dynasty dictionaries: the 1615 ''Zihui'' by Mei Yingzuo , and the 1627 ''Zhengzitong'' by Zhang Zilie . Since the imperial edict required that the ''Kangxi Dictionary'' be compiled within five years, a number of errors were inevitable. The Daoguang Emperor established a review board and their 1831 ''Zidian kaozheng'' corrected 2,588 mistakes, mostly in quotations and citations. <br />
<br />
The supplemented dictionary contains 47,035 character entries, plus 1,995 , giving a total of 49,030 different characters. They are grouped under the 214 and arranged by the number of additional strokes in the character. Although these 214 radicals were first used in the ''Zihui'', due to the popularity of the ''Kangxi Dictionary'' they are known as and remain in modern usage as a method to categorize traditional Chinese characters.<br />
<br />
The character entries give variants , pronunciations in traditional fanqie spelling and in modern reading of a homophone, different meanings, and quotations from Chinese books and lexicons. The dictionary also contains rime tables with characters ordered under syllable rime classes, s, and initial syllable onsets.<br />
<br />
The ''Kangxi Dictionary'' is available in many forms, from old Qing Dynasty editions in block printing, to reprints in traditional Chinese bookbinding, to modern revised editions with essays in Western-style hardcover, to the digitized Internet version.<br />
<br />
The ''Kangxi Dictionary'' is one of the Chinese dictionaries used by the Ideographic Rapporteur Group for the Unicode standard.<br />
<br />
<a name='Structure of the Kangxi dictionary' id='Structure of the Kangxi dictionary'></a><h2>Structure of the Kangxi dictionary</h2><br />
* Preface by Kangxi Emperor : pp. 1-6 <br />
* Notes on the use of the dictionary : pp. 7-12 <br />
* Indication of pronuciation of characters : pp. 13-40 <br />
* Comprehensive table of contents by radicals : pp. 41-49 <br />
* Facilitated consulting contents : pp. 50-71 <br />
<br />
* The dictionary proper : pp. 75-1631<br />
** Main text : pp. 75-1538<br />
** Addendum contents : pp. 1539-1544 <br />
** Addendum text : pp. 1545-1576<br />
** Appendix contents : pp. 1577-1583 <br />
** Appendix text : pp. 1585-1631<br />
* Postscript : pp. 1633-1635 <br />
* Textual research : pp. 1637-1683fraejouvhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12344645430188019786noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4904441496752611880.post-40781032712194208312008-09-20T01:17:00.001-07:002008-09-20T01:17:13.942-07:00JiyunThe <strong>Jiyun</strong> is a rime dictionary published in 1037 during the Song Dynasty. The chief editor Ding Du and others expanded and revised the ''Guangyun''. It is possible, according to Teng and Biggerstaff , that Sima Guang completed the text in 1067. The ''Jiyun'' has 53,525 character entries , approximately twice as many as the ''Guangyun'', and likewise has 206 rime groups.fraejouvhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12344645430188019786noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4904441496752611880.post-3401142243685736152008-09-20T01:16:00.008-07:002008-09-20T01:17:04.830-07:00Jingdian Shiwen<strong>Jingdian Shiwen</strong> , often abbreviated as ''Shiwen'' in Chinese philological literature, was a circa 582-589 CE exegetical dictionary or glossary, edited by the Tang Dynasty classical scholar Lu Deming . This Chinese dictionary contains invaluable ''fanqie'' annotations for pronunciations of s in the Chinese classic texts, the Taoist ones as well as the Confucian ones. It also cites some ancient books that are no longer extant, and are only known through ''Jingdian Shiwen''. <br />
<br />
Bernhard Karlgren considered ''Jingdian Shiwen'' and the 601 ''Qieyun'' rime dictionary as the two primary sources for reconstructing Middle Chinese. Many studies in Chinese historical linguistics utilize the important ''Jingdian Shiwen'' data.fraejouvhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12344645430188019786noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4904441496752611880.post-25802426329529261532008-09-20T01:16:00.007-07:002008-09-20T01:16:56.199-07:00Hanyu Da ZidianThe <strong>Hanyu Da Zidian</strong> is one of the best available reference works on Chinese characters. A group of more than 400 editors and lexicographers began compilation in 1979, and it was published in eight volumes from 1986 to 1989. A separate volume of essays documents the lexicographical complexities for this full-scale Chinese dictionary. Besides the weighty 5,790-page first edition, there are 3-volume and pocket editions.<br />
<br />
The ''Hanyu Da Zidian'' includes 54,678 head entries for characters. They give historical logographic forms such as oracle bone script, bronzeware script, and seal script. Pronunciation is glossed for Old Chinese , Middle Chinese , and Standard Mandarin . The chronologically numbered definitions cite early Chinese dictionaries and texts. Internal collating is by a novel 200 system, arranged by count. Volume 8 has appendices, including rime tables for Old and Middle Chinese, variant characters, indexes, and addenda. <br />
<br />
The ''Hanyu Da Zidian'' has become the international standard reference for Chinese characters; for example, the Unihan Database and the Wiktionary cite references.fraejouvhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12344645430188019786noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4904441496752611880.post-8358917381113064942008-09-20T01:16:00.005-07:002008-09-20T01:16:48.846-07:00Hanyu Da CidianThe <strong>Hanyu Da Cidian</strong> is the most inclusive available Chinese dictionary. Lexicographically comparable to the OED, it has diachronic coverage of the Chinese language, and traces usage over three millennia from Chinese classic texts to modern slang. The chief editor Luo Zhufeng 羅竹風 , along with a team of over 300 scholars and lexicographers, started the enormous task of compilation in 1979. Publication of the thirteen volumes began in 1986 and finished in 1993.<br />
<br />
The ''Hanyu da cidian'' includes over 23,000 head Chinese character entries, defines some 370,000 words, and gives 1,500,000 citations. The head entries, which are by a novel 200 system, are given in traditional Chinese characters while simplified Chinese characters are noted. Definitions and explanations are in simplified, excepting classical quotations. <br />
<br />
Volume 13 has both pinyin and count indexes, plus appendices. A separate index volume lists 728,000 entries for characters by their position within words and phrases, something like a reverse dictionary. For instance, the ''Hanyu da cidian'' enters ''Daode jing'' 道德經 under the head character ''dao''; this reverse-index lists it under both ''de'' and ''jing''. "Despite the fact that it weighs over 20 kilos and contains a total of 50 million characters spread over 20,000 large double-column pages," says Wilkinson , "the ''Hanyu da cidian'' is an easy dictionary to use to the full because it is unusually well indexed." It became even easier to use when Victor H. Mair edited a single-sort alphabetically arranged pinyin index .<br />
<br />
The abridged CD-ROM version contains 18,013 head characters, 336,385 words and phrases, and 861,956 citations. It includes male and female sound files for pronunciation, and enables more than 20 search methods. The 3.0 CD-ROM version was released in 2007.fraejouvhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12344645430188019786noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4904441496752611880.post-42143695489852849782008-09-20T01:16:00.003-07:002008-09-20T01:16:40.889-07:00Gwoyeu Romatzyh<strong>Gwoyeu Romatzyh</strong> , abbreviated <strong>GR</strong>, is a system for writing in the Latin alphabet. The system was conceived by and developed by a group of including Chao and Lin Yutang from 1925 to 1926. Chao himself later published influential using GR. In addition a small number of other textbooks and dictionaries in GR were published in Hong Kong and overseas from 1942 to 2000.<br />
<br />
GR is the better known of the two romanization systems which indicate the four by varying the spelling of syllables . These tones are a fundamental part of the Chinese language: to a Chinese speaker they are no less a component of a word than vowels are to an English speaker. Tones in Chinese allow speakers to discriminate between otherwise identical syllables—in other words they are phonemic. Other systems indicate the tones with either diacritics or numbers . GR spells the same four tones ''ai'', ''ai<strong>r</strong>, ''a<strong>e</strong> and ''a<strong>y</strong>. These spellings, which follow specific , indicate the tones while retaining the pronunciation of the syllable ''ai''. Because it embeds the tone of each syllable in its spelling, GR may —though some academics dispute this claim.<br />
<br />
In 1928 China adopted GR as the nation's official romanization system. GR was used to indicate pronunciations in dictionaries of the National Language. Its proponents hoped one day to establish it as a writing system for a reformed Chinese script. But despite support from a small number of trained linguists in China and overseas, GR met with public indifference and even hostility due to its complexity. Another obstacle preventing its widespread adoption was the fact that it was too narrowly based on the Beijing dialect, in a period lacking a strong centralized government to enforce its use. Eventually GR lost ground to Pinyin and other later romanization systems. However, its influence is still evident, as several of the principles introduced by its creators have been used in romanization systems that followed it.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<a name='History' id='History'></a><h2>History</h2><br />
<br />
, Gwoyeu Romatzyh's most distinctive feature, was first suggested to Y.R Chao by Lin Yutang. By 1922 Chao had already established the main principles of GR. <br />
The details of the system were developed in 1925–1926 by a group of five linguists, led by Chao and including Lin, under the auspices of the . In 1928 GR was officially adopted by the government. GR was intended to be used alongside the existing phonetic symbols: hence the alternative name for GR, "Second Pattern of the National Alphabet." Both systems were used to indicate the revised standard of pronunciation in the new official ''Vocabulary of National Pronunciation for Everyday Use'' of 1932. The designers of GR had greater ambitions: their aim was complete reform of the script, using GR as a practical system of writing.<br />
<br />
In the 1930s two shortlived attempts were made to teach GR to railway workers and peasants in and provinces. Support for GR, being confined to a small number of trained linguists and sinologists, "was distinguished more for its quality than its quantity." During this period GR faced increasing hostility because of the complexity of its tonal spelling. Conversely, sinologist Bernhard Karlgren criticised GR for its lack of phonetic rigour. Ultimately, like the rival system Latinxua Sinwenz, GR failed to gain widespread support, principally because the "National" language was too narrowly based on : "a sufficiently precise and strong language norm had not yet become a reality in China".<br />
<br />
<span id="shaan">A vestigial use of GR</span> in can be seen in the official spelling of the first syllable of ''Shaanxi'' for province, to distinguish it from province, particularly in foreign-language text where the tone marks are often omitted. Some prominent Chinese have used GR to transliterate their names: for example the mathematician Shiing-Shen Chern.<br />
<br />
In Taiwan GR survived until the 1970s as a pronunciation aid in monolingual dictionaries such as ''Gwoyeu Tsyrdean '' and ''Tsyrhuey '', but was officially replaced in 1986 by a modified form known as MPS II, which was in turn replaced by Tongyong Pinyin in 2002.<br />
<br />
<a name='Description' id='Description'></a><h2>Description</h2><br />
<br />
:''Note:'' In this section the word "tone" is abbreviated as "T": thus T1 stands for Tone 1 , etc. To assist readers unfamiliar with GR, Pinyin equivalents have been added in brackets. <br />
<br />
<h3>Basic forms </h3><br />
<br />
An important GR innovation, later adopted by Pinyin, was to use contrasting pairs of consonants from Latin to represent sounds in Chinese. For example ''b'' and ''p'' represent and . A potentially confusing feature of GR is the use of ''j, ch,'' and ''sh'' to represent two different series of sounds. When followed by ''i'' these letters correspond to the sounds ; otherwise they correspond to the sounds . Readers used to Pinyin need to pay particular attention to these spellings: for example, GR ''ju, jiu,'' and ''jiou'' correspond to Pinyin ''zhu, ju,'' and ''jiu'' respectively.<br />
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GR orthography has these additional notable features:<br />
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*''iu'' represents the close front rounded vowel spelt ''ü'' or in many cases simply ''u'' in Pinyin. <br />
*Final ''-y'' represents allophones of ''i'' : GR ''shy'' and ''sy'' correspond to Pinyin ''shi'' and ''si'' respectively. <br />
*''el'' corresponds to Pinyin ''er'' . The most important use of ''-l'' is as a suffix, as in ''ideal'' = ''i dean'' + ''-l'', "a little" .<br />
*A number of frequently-occurring morphemes have abbreviated spellings in GR. The commonest of these are: ''-g'' , ''-j'' , ''-m'' , ''sh'' and ''-tz'' .<br />
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<h3>Tonal modifications</h3><br />
By default, the basic GR spelling described above is used for Tone1 syllables. The basic form is then modified to indicate tones 2, 3 and 4. This is accomplished in one of three ways:<br />
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*<strong>either</strong> a vowel is changed to another vowel resembling it in sound <br />
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*<strong>or</strong> a letter is doubled<br />
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*<strong>or</strong> a silent letter is added after the vowel.<br />
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Wherever possible the concise first method is used. The following rules of thumb cover most cases.<br />
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<strong>Tone 1 </strong> <br />
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:''shiue, chuan, chang, hai, bau'' <br />
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<strong><span style="color:blue" id="T2Rule">Tone 2: i/u → y/w; or add -r</span></strong><br />
:''sh<span style="color:blue">y</span>ue, ch<span style="color:blue">w</span>an, cha<span style="color:blue">r</span>ng, hai<span style="color:blue">r</span>, bau<span style="color:blue">r</span>'' <br />
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<strong><span style="color:fuchsia" id="T3Rule">Tone 3: i/u → e/o; or double vowel</span></strong> <br />
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:''sh<span style="color:fuchsia">e</span>ue, ch<span style="color:fuchsia">o</span>an, ch<span style="color:fuchsia">aa</span>ng, ha<span style="color:fuchsia">e</span>, ba<span style="color:fuchsia">o</span>'' <br />
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<strong><span style="color:red">Tone 4: change/double final letter; or add -h</span></strong><br />
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:''shiue<span style="color:red">h</span>, chua<span style="color:red">nn</span>, cha<span style="color:red">nq</span>, ha<span style="color:red">y</span>, ba<span style="color:red">w</span>'' <br />
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<strong>Neutral tone: precede with a dot </strong><br />
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:''pe<span style="color:blue">r</span>ng.yeou, di<span style="color:red">h</span>.fang'' . <br />
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<strong>Exception</strong> Syllables with an initial sonorant use the basic form for T2 rather than T1. In these syllables the T1 is marked with ''-h-'' as the second letter. For example ''mha'' is T1 , whereas ''ma'' is T2 . T3 and T4 are regular: ''maa'' and ''mah'' .<br />
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<a name='Compounds as words' id='Compounds as words'></a><h2>Compounds as words</h2><br />
An important principle of GR is that syllables which form words should be written together. This strikes speakers of European languages as obvious; but in Chinese the concept of "word" is not easy to pin down. The basic unit of speech is popularly thought to be the monosyllable represented by a , which in most cases represents a meaningful syllable or morpheme, a smaller unit than the "linguistic word". Characters are written and printed with no spaces between words; yet in practice most consist of two-syllable compounds, and it was Chao's bold innovation in 1922 to reflect this in GR orthography by grouping the appropriate syllables together into words. This represented a radical departure from hyphenated Wade-Giles forms such as ''Kuo<sup>2</sup>-yü<sup>3</sup> Lo<sup>2</sup>-ma<sup>3</sup>-tz?<sup>4</sup>'' . This principle, illustrated in the below, was later adopted in Pinyin.<br />
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<a name='Texts' id='Texts'></a><h2>Texts</h2><br />
used GR in four influential works:<br />
*''A Concise Dictionary of Spoken Chinese'' <br />
*''Mandarin Primer'' <br />
:This course was originally used in the Army Specialized Training Program at the School for Overseas Administration in 1943–1944 and subsequently in civilian courses.<br />
*''A Grammar of Spoken Chinese'' <br />
*''Readings in Sayable Chinese'' [] "Sayable" in this context means colloquial, as opposed to the vernacular Chinese style often read by students.<br />
<br />
''Readings in Sayable Chinese'' was written "to supply the advanced student of spoken Chinese with reading matter which he can actually use in his speech." It consists of three volumes of Chinese text with facing GR romanization. They contain some lively recorded dialogues, "Fragments of an autobiography," two plays and a translation of ''Through the Looking-Glass ''. Two extracts from ''Tzoou daw Jinqtz lii'' with facing translations can be read online.<br />
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In 1942 Walter Simon introduced GR to English-speaking sinologists in a special pamphlet, ''The New Official Chinese Latin Script''. Over the remainder of the 1940s he published a series of textbooks and readers, as well as a Chinese-English Dictionary, all using GR. His son Harry Simon later went on to use GR in scholarly papers on Chinese linguistics. <br />
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In 1960 Y.C. Liu, a colleague of Walter Simon's at SOAS, published ''Fifty Chinese Stories''. These selections from were presented in both and modern Chinese, together with GR romanizations and versions prepared by Simon .<br />
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Lin Yutang's Chinese-English dictionary incorporated a number of innovative features, one of which was a simplified version of GR. Lin eliminated most of the spelling rules requiring substitution of vowels, as can be seen from his spelling ''Guo<span style="color:blue">r</span>y<span style="color:fuchsia">uu</span> Romatzyh'', But GR has its advantages. According to Y.R. Chao:<br />
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For example, it may be easier to memorize the difference between GR ''Beeijing'' and ''beyjiing'' than the Pinyin versions ''Běijīng'' and ''bèijǐng'', where the tones seem to be almost an afterthought. <br />
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Not all teachers are convinced of the superiority of GR as a means of teaching correct tones to learners. One study conducted at the University of Oregon in 1991–1993 compared the results of using Pinyin and GR in teaching elementary level Chinese to two matched groups of students. It concluded that "GR did not lead to significantly greater accuracy in tonal production."<br />
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GR continues to be used by some teachers of Chinese. In 2000, the Princeton ''Chinese Primer'' series was published in both GR and Pinyin versions. GR is used as the main romanization method in some university departments, for example the East Asian Studies Program at Bucknell University in Pennsylvania.<br />
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<a name='Example' id='Example'></a><h2>Example</h2><br />
Here is an extract from Y.R. Chao's . The topic is scholarly , but the style colloquial. The tonal spelling markers or "clues" are again highlighted using the same as above. Versions in , and are given below the GR text.<br />
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:"Ha<span style="color:red">nn</span>sh<span style="color:blue">y</span>ue" de <span style="color:blue">m</span>ingcheng due<span style="color:red">y</span> Jongg<span style="color:blue">w</span>o y<span style="color:fuchsia">e</span>ou id<span style="color:fuchsia">e</span>an butzuenjin<span style="color:red">q</span> de yi<span style="color:red">h</span>we<span style="color:red">y</span>. W<span style="color:fuchsia">oo</span>men tingshuo y<span style="color:fuchsia">e</span>ou "Yi<span style="color:red">nn</span>du<span style="color:red">h</span>sh<span style="color:blue">y</span>ue", "Aij<span style="color:blue">yi</span>sh<span style="color:blue">y</span>ue", "Ha<span style="color:red">nn</span>sh<span style="color:blue">y</span>ue", e<span style="color:blue">r</span>l <span style="color:blue">m</span>eiy<span style="color:fuchsia">e</span>ou tingshuo y<span style="color:fuchsia">e</span>ou "Shila<span style="color:red">h</span>sh<span style="color:blue">y</span>ue", "<span style="color:blue">L</span>uom<span style="color:fuchsia">aa</span>sh<span style="color:blue">y</span>ue", gen<span style="color:red">q</span> <span style="color:blue">m</span>eiy<span style="color:fuchsia">e</span>ou tingshuo y<span style="color:fuchsia">e</span>ou "Ingg<span style="color:blue">w</span>osh<span style="color:blue">y</span>ue", "M<span style="color:fuchsia">ee</span>ig<span style="color:blue">w</span>osh<span style="color:blue">y</span>ue". "Ha<span style="color:red">nn</span>sh<span style="color:blue">y</span>ue" je<span style="color:red">y</span>g <span style="color:blue">m</span>ingcheng <span style="color:blue">w</span>anch<span style="color:blue">y</span>uan b<span style="color:fuchsia">e</span>aushy<span style="color:red">h</span> Ou-M<span style="color:fuchsia">ee</span>i sh<span style="color:blue">y</span>uej<span style="color:fuchsia">ee</span> due<span style="color:red">y</span> na<span style="color:red">h</span>shie y<span style="color:fuchsia">ii</span>jing che<span style="color:blue">r</span>n<span style="color:blue">l</span>uen de g<span style="color:fuchsia">uu</span>la<span style="color:fuchsia">o</span>-g<span style="color:blue">w</span>ojia de <span style="color:blue">w</span>enhua<span style="color:red">h</span> de i-j<span style="color:fuchsia">oo</span>ng chingka<span style="color:red">nn</span> de ta<span style="color:red">y</span>du<span style="color:red">h</span>.<br />
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:<strong>GR tone key</strong><br />
:Tone 1 <span style="color:blue">Tone 2</span> <span style="color:fuchsia">Tone 3</span> <span style="color:red">Tone 4</span><br />
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<span id="chin">Simplified Chinese characters</span>:<br />
<br />
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<span>Traditional Chinese characters</span>:<br />
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<span id="pin">Pinyin </span>version:<br />
"Hànxué" de míngchēng duì Zhōngguó yǒu yìdiǎn bùzūnjìng de yìwèi. Wǒmen tīngshuō yǒu "Yìndùxué," "?ijíxué," "Hànxué," ér méiyǒu tīngshuō yǒu "Xīlàxué," "Luómǎxué," gèng méiyǒu tīngshuō yǒu "Yīngguóxué," "Měiguóxué." "Hànxué" zhèige míngchēng wánquán biǎoshì ?u-Měi xuézhě duì nàxiē yǐjing chénlún de gǔlǎo-guójiā de wénhuà de yìzhǒng qīngkàn de tàidù.<br />
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<span id="eng">English translation</span>:<br />
The term "Sinology" carries a slight overtone of disrespect towards China. One hears of "Indology," "Egyptology" and "Sinology," but never "Graecology" or "Romology"—let alone "Anglology" or "Americology." The term "Sinology" epitomizes European and American scholars' patronizing attitude towards the culture of those ruined ancient empires.fraejouvhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12344645430188019786noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4904441496752611880.post-80820526776264148392008-09-20T01:16:00.001-07:002008-09-20T01:16:21.553-07:00GuangyunThe <strong>Guangyun</strong> is a rime dictionary that was compiled from 1007 to 1011 under the auspices of Emperor Zhenzong of Song. Chen Pengnian and Qiu Yong were the chief editors. In the history of Chinese lexicography, the ''Guangyun'' stands between the Qieyun and the Jiyun. <br />
<br />
It was originally split into four in five volumes, two belonging to the Middle Chinese level tone , one each for the other three Middle Chinese tones, rising tone , departing tone , and entering tone . Each tone was split into rimes, and under each rimes were grouped characters of the same onset, and under each entry, was given a brief explanation of its meaning. The ''Guangyun'' has a total of 26,194 character entries, which are arranged under 206 final rimes, increased from 193 in the ''Qieyun'' .<br />
<br />
Unicode digitally reincarnated the ''Guangyun''. The Unihan database incorporates the "SBGY" dataset with 25,330 head-entries for 19,511 characters.fraejouvhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12344645430188019786noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4904441496752611880.post-63826189798188581912008-09-20T01:15:00.001-07:002008-09-20T01:15:41.508-07:00Ganlu Zishu<strong>Ganlu Zishu</strong> is a orthography dictionary of the Tang Dynasty. The first surviving orthographical dictionary for the regular script, it was authored by Yan Yuansun , a descendant of the famous scholar Yan Shigu. It is roughly based on Yan Shigu's work ''Ziyang'' , now surviving only in fragments. It was meant to be an official guide for the use of those who took the Imperial examination, thus the title "Ganlu", an allusion to the ''Analects'' .<br />
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The work comprises about 800 s . The characters are collated by and . The variants of a character are divided into three types: the "standard" , the "acceptable" and the "vulgar" . Not every character has all the three types of variant. The examinees were supposed to use the "standard" form of a character.<br />
<br />
The text was carved on stone with the calligraphy of Yan Zhenqing, nephew of Yan Yuansun. The stone has worn out, though.fraejouvhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12344645430188019786noreply@blogger.com0